Table 1 Hierarchical decomposition of the facets of knowledge application

A1: Identifying needs for action and information gaps

1.1 Identifying needs for action

1.2 Identifying sources of information

A2: Processing information

2.1 Applying algorithms (e.g., calculating procedures)

2.2 Using domain-specific tools (e.g., functions in a spreadsheet software)

A3: Coming to a well-founded decision

3.1 Quality of arguments

3.2.1 Reflection of one’s own solution

3.2.2 Reflection of applied methods

3.2.3 Reflection of side and long-term effects

A4: Communicating the decision appropriately

4.1 Using domain-specific language (e.g., technical terms)

4.2 Meeting communication standards (e.g., complimentary close in an email)

4.3 Structuring one’s statement (e.g., paragraphs)

4.4 Meeting formal standards (orthography and punctuation)