Table 1 Coding template based on characteristics of the model of powerful learning environments in vocational education (Placklé et al. 2014, 2018)

Challenging and authentic learning tasks

Intellectually challenging and complex learning tasks connected to real-life situations in an authentic context, with the emphasis on practical learning for integrated acquisition of vocational skills, knowledge and key competencies

Creating opportunities for the development of key competencies

Creating opportunities for developing self-regulated, cooperative learning and problem-solving skills. Promoting students’ active engagement in regulating and controlling their learning process through scaffolding and reflective dialog; stimulating interaction and communication with peers and teachers in collaborative knowledge construction

Adaptive teaching and learning support

Supporting students’ learning through adaptive guidance, modelling, coaching, and differentiated teaching to meet their individual needs, strengths and abilities. Pre- and formative assessment for the planning and supporting differentiated teaching

A safe and positive learning community

Warm and supportive relationships between students and teachers, close cooperation between teachers and other stakeholders in and outside the school