Table 2 A description of the included studies

1. Adhikari (2018)

Asia

Nepal

Low income

Study design: qualitative phenomenological study

Subjects: students (N = 8; age: 18–32; gender: mixed)

Data collection: in-depth interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type (V, T, O, A*): skills training program at vocational centers (V)

Non-technical component: not available (N/A)

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: government-led initiatives

Target groups: learners with disabilities

Process**: IQ; LE

Outcome***: N/A

2. Alcid (2014)

Africa

Rwanda

Low income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: graduates (N = 34; age: 14–35; gender: mixed)

Data collection: focus group discussions

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: Akazi Kanoze program (V, O)

Non-technical component: life skills; entrepreneurship training; mentoring & coaching; literacy & numeracy

Business sector: hair dressing, hospitality, masonry, carpentry, welding, and tailoring

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: N/A

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; EC; As

3. Apunda et al. (2017)

Africa

Kenya

Lower-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: students (N = 10; age: 16–35; gender: dominantly female)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: informal tailoring apprenticeship training (A)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: tailoring

Duration & format: flexible arrangement with trade masters

Provider: private trade masters

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ

Outcome: N/A

4. Bhurtel (2016)

Asia

Nepal

Low income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: graduates (N = 5; age: N/A; gender: N/A)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: Technical School Leaving Certificate program (V, T, O)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: mechanical engineering

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ

Outcome: SC; EC

5. Botea et al. (2015)

Africa

Rwanda

Low income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: students (N = 94; age: 15–25; gender: female)

Data collection: semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions

Data analysis: content and thematic analysis

TVET type: Promoting the Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women Project (V)

Non-technical component: life skills; entrepreneurship training; labor intermediation services; mentoring & coaching

Business sector: arts and crafts, culinary arts, food processing, and agri-business

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: government-led initiatives

Target groups: marginalized girls and young women

Process: IQ; LE

Outcome: CC; EC; HH

6. da Luz et al. 2012

South America

Brazil

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: students (N = 40; age: 14–20; gender: mixed)

Data collection: individual and collective interviews

Data analysis: content analysis

TVET type: First Job program (O, A)

Non-technical component: labor intermediation services; career counseling

Business sector: multiple service sectors

Duration & format: flexible arrangement with private employers

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: low-income neighborhood

Process: IQ

Outcome: HH

7. Darkwah (2013)

Africa

Ghana

Lower-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 14; age: over 50% 20–24; gender: mixed)

Data collection: in-depth interviews

Data analysis: content analysis

TVET type: Alpha Beta vocational training program (V, O)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: oil and gas

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: private training agency

Target groups: rural youth with secondary schooling, but little prospects for tertiary education

Process: N/A

Outcome: SC; EC; As

8. DeJaeghere (2018)

Africa

Tanzania

Low income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: students (N = 2; age: N/A; gender: female)

Data collection: in-depth interview

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational high schools (V, O)

Non-technical component: entrepreneurship training

Business sector: agriculture, livestock keeping, motorcycle maintenance, driving, masonry and carpentry, hospitality, cooking, knitting, and sewing

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: N/A

Process: LE

Outcome: CC; SC; EC; As

9. DeJaeghere et al. (2019)

Africa

Tanzania & Uganda

Low income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: students (N = 67; age: 14–22; gender: mixed)

Data collection: in-depth interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: Swisscontact (V, A)

Non-technical component: life skills; entrepreneurship training; labor intermediation services; financial literacy; career counseling; financial support

Business sector: auto/motorbike repair, electrical wiring, hairdressing, tailoring, hospitality, agricultural production, and sales

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: out-of-school marginalized youth

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; EC

10. Donkor (2012)

Africa

Ghana

Lower-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: Non-completers (N = 60; age: 95% 18–30; gender: dominantly male)

Data collection: interviews

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: informal automotive apprenticeship training (A)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: automotive trades

Duration & format: flexible arrangement with trade masters

Provider: private trade masters

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ; LE

Outcome: N/A

11. Jacobs and Collair (2017)

Africa

South Africa

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: graduates (N = 4; age: 18–20; gender: mixed)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: education at vocationally oriented special needs schools (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: schools/colleges

Target groups: learners who experience barriers to learning due to cognitive, behavioral or specific learning difficulties,

Process: LE

Outcome: CC; SC; As

12. Koo (2016)

Asia

China

Upper-middle income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: students (N = 24; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: in-depth interviews

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational high schools (V, T, O)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: schools/colleges

Target groups: rural youth

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; EC; As

13. Korzh (2013)

Europe

Ukraine

Lower-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 58; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational schools (V, T)

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Non-technical component: N/A

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: orphans and children from single parent and low-income families

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; EC; As

14. Latopa and Rashid 2015

Africa

Nigeria

Lower-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: graduates (N = 21; age: N/A; gender: N/A)

Data collection: in-depth interviews and focus group discussions

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: integrated Youth Training Farm Program (V)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: agriculture

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Government-led initiatives

Target groups: N/A

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; SC; EC

15. Lefebvre et al. (2018)

Africa

Kenya

Lower-middle income

Tanzania & Uganda

Low income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: students (N = 130; age: 16–25; gender: mixed)

Data collection: interviews

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type (1): CAP Youth Empowerment Institute (V, O)

Non-technical component (1): life skills; financial literacy

TVET type (2): Swisscontact (V, A)

Non-technical component (2): life skills; entrepreneurship training; labor intermediation services; financial literacy; career counseling; financial support

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: marginalized youth

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; EC; As

16. Ling (2015)

Asia

China

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: students (N = N/A; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: N/A

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational high schools (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: rural migrant students

Process: IQ; LE

Outcome: SC; As

17. Management Systems International and A Tetra Tech Company (2017)

Africa

Kenya

Lower-middle income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: graduates (N = 21; age: 18–35; gender: mixed)

Data collection: interviews and focus group discussions

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: Kenya Youth Employment and Skills program (V, O)

Non-technical component: life skills; entrepreneurship training; labor intermediation services

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: unemployed & underemployed youth

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; EC

18. Matsumoto (2018)

Africa

Sierra Leone

Low income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: students (N = 15; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: interviews, focus group discussions, task-based participatory methods, participant observation

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at TVET centers (V, T, O)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: masonry and home management

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: training centers

Target groups: N/A

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; EC; As

19. Murtaza et al. (2018)

Asia

Pakistan

Lower-middle income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 55; age: 16–29; gender: mixed)

Data collection: interviews

Data analysis: content analysis

TVET type: Punjab Youth Workforce Development Project (V, O, A)

Non-technical component: life skills; entrepreneurship training; labor intermediation services; career counseling; financial support

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: at-risk youth

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; SC; EC

20. Nagamuthu et al. (2019)

Asia

Malaysia

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative Narrative study

Subjects: students (N = 2; age: 18; gender: female)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: inductive content analysis

TVET type: vocational program at Integrity School (V)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: not specified

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: juvenile prison

Target groups: juvenile delinquents

Process: IQ; LE

Outcome: CC

21. Neroorkar and Gopinath (2019)

Asia

India

Lower-middle income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: graduates (N = 15; age: 18–33; gender: mixed)

Data collection: interviews

Data analysis: content analysis

TVET type: education at Industrial Training Institutes (V, T, A)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: fitter, welder, machinist, mechanical draughtsman, diesel mechanic, carpenter, electrician, computer operator and programming assistant, dress making, cosmetology, secretarial practice and food production

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ; LE

Outcome: CC; SC; EC; As

22. Powell (2012)

Africa

South Africa

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 20; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: in-depth interviews

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at further education and training colleges (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: disadvantaged youth

Process: N/A

Outcome: As

23. Sedighi et al. (2015)

Asia

Iran

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: graduates (N = 7; age: N/A; gender: male)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: education at vocational high schools (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; SC; EC

24. Spaaij 2012

South America

Brazil

Upper-middle income

Study design: mixed methods

Subjects: graduates (N = 53; age: 16–24; gender: mixed)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: Vencer sport-based program (V, O)

Non-technical component: life skills; mentoring & coaching

Business sector: telemarketing, administration, ICT, sales, and community services

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: disadvantaged youth

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; SC

25. Usman (2009)

Africa

Nigeria

Lower-middle income

Study design: ethnographic study

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 15; age: 12–20; gender: male)

Data collection: interviews and non-participant observations

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: Millennium Hope Project (V)

Non-technical component: financial literacy; literacy and numeracy; financial support

Business sector: carpentry, soap making, mechanic, welding, cobbling, typing, masonry, landscaping, agriculture, and arts and crafts

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: government-led initiatives

Target groups: disadvantaged Muslim Almajiri boys

Process: N/A

Outcome: CC; SC; EC; As; HH

26. Van der Bijl and Lawrence (2019)

Africa

South Africa

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative

Subjects: graduates and non-completers (N = 6; age: N/A; gender: N/A)

Data collection: interviews

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: National Certificate (Vocational) civil and construction program (V)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: civil and construction

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ; LE

Outcome: N/A

27. Veazey (2014)

Asia

India

Lower-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: students (N = N/A; age: avg. 21.6; gender: mixed)

Data collection: semi-structured interviews & sustained ethnographic observations

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: LACES livelihoods training program (V, A)

Non-technical component: life skills

Business sector: business process outsourcing

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: third sector organization

Target groups: working-class and working-poor Muslim youth

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; SC

28. Vong et al. (2017)

Asia

Malaysia

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: graduates (N = 15; age: N/A; gender: N/A)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: thematic analysis

TVET type: Rural ICT Guided Home-Based Technopreneur program (V, O)

Non-technical component: life skills; entrepreneurship training

Business sector: ICT

Duration & format: short-term skills training

Provider: private enterprise

Target groups: N/A

Process: IQ

Outcome: CC; EC

29. Walker (2007)

Europe

Russia

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 96; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational training colleges (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: N/A

Outcome: EC; As

30. Walker (2009)

Europe

Russia

Upper-middle income

Study design: qualitative case study

Subjects: students & graduates (N = 96; age: 15–24; gender: mixed)

Data collection: semi-structured interview

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational training colleges (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: public schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: N/A

Outcome: EC; As

31. Woronov (2011)

Asia

China

Upper-middle income

Study design: ethnographic study

Subjects: students (N = N/A; age: N/A; gender: mixed)

Data collection: interviews & observations

Data analysis: N/A

TVET type: education at vocational high schools (V, T)

Non-technical component: N/A

Business sector: multiple (not specified)

Duration & format: longer-term education and training

Provider: schools/colleges

Target groups: N/A

Process: LE

Outcome: SC; EC