Table 2 Codebook for content analysis
From: Characteristics of learning tasks in accounting textbooks: an AI assisted analysis
Category | Key question/definition | Description of levels | Example tasks for different levels | Explanation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density of Real-World Information and Process Orientation | Process orientation | Is the task part of a process chain? Is it clear that the situation stated in the task is preceded or followed by another situation? Does the task refer to preceding or forthcoming situations? | 0 = no reference to preceding or forthcoming situations 1 = limited reference to preceding or forthcoming situations 2 = reference to several preceding or forthcoming situations or to preceding and forthcoming situations | Level 1: On Dec. 31st the invoice from the public utility company for electricity for December is still outstanding. Based on the meter reading, a consumption of 680 euros is estimated a) What is the correct posting on Dec. 31st? b) How should the invoice amount of 1,309 euros including 19% VAT be booked on January 20th of the following year? | The task involves two steps of the process chain (posting on December 31st, and posting the incoming invoice on January 20th) |
Description of social processes | Does the task represent social processes occurring in a particular situation realistically and in a detailed manner? | 0 = no representation 1 = abstract representation 2 = detailed and realistic representation (e.g. by using pictures, accurate descriptions, etc.) | Level 1: The managing directors of Sommerfeld Ltd. plan to build a new production hall (estimated costs: 400,000 euros). The managing director, Mrs. Farthmann, proposes to finance the hall exclusively with equity capital. Mr. Feld is of the opinion that it would be more advantageous to take out a loan from the bank. a) Present the advantages of financing with equity capital in an overview for Mrs. Farthmann. b) Collect arguments in favor of Mr. Feld’s proposal | The task description outlines a social process/situation (two opposing opinions of managing directors), but not in great detail | |
Description of cash flows | Does the task represent the real-world context realistically and in a detailed manner when it comes to liquid funds? | 0 = no representation 1 = abstract representation 2 = detailed and realistic representation (e.g. by using pictures, accurate descriptions, etc.) | Level 1: The vehicle tax for five company cars (2,610 euros) is paid to the tax authority by bank transfer on September 1st for the period from September 1st to August 31st | The task contains a cash flow, but does not provide a realistic and detailed representation (e.g. by using an account statement) | |
Description of goods and services | Does the task represent the real-world context realistically and in a detailed manner when it comes to goods and services provided or purchased by the particular company? | 0 = no representation 1 = abstract representation 2 = detailed and realistic representation (e.g. by using pictures, accurate descriptions, etc.) | Level 1: Purchase of a photocopier for 1,000 euros + 19% VAT Correctly document the transaction | No detailed description of the purchased product available (e.g. by using a picture) | |
Document orientation | Does the task contain realistic documents which need to be used for solving the task? | 0 = no document included in the task 1 = document included, but irrelevant for solving the task 2 = document included and relevant for solving the task | Level 2: Correctly post the following receipt. (Note: incoming invoice is displayed) | The document included is necessary to come to a solution, as no information (e.g. concerning the supplier or prices) is available except for the receipt | |
Problem Orientation | Identification of problems | Is the learner required to identify the problem, or is it already given within the task instruction? | 0 = task with no problem (e.g. basic knowledge questions) 1 = problem is given 2 = problem needs to be identified by the learner | Level 2: On December 31st, a liability of 12,000 euros was recognized for the legal costs of a pending lawsuit. Before the balance sheet is drawn up on March 10th, the lawsuit unexpectedly ends in our favor. Evaluate the situation and take the necessary steps | The task includes a problem which is not clearly stated for the learner. The learner has to identify the problem and take further steps to solve it |
Obtaining missing information | Is the learner encouraged to research additional, relevant information in order to solve the task, or is all relevant information already included? | 0 = no research necessary 1 = research within the task necessary (e.g. from balance sheets, income statements, contracts) 2 = research from other resources (e.g. internet, textbook or other learning material) or from more than one source within the task is necessary | Level 2: a) Calculate the profitability for Tasty Fruit. b) Check whether this ratio has changed by determining the previous year’s value and compare it to the current value. c) Compare the ratio from a) with the values of other companies in the same industry. To do this, carry out an internet search | The task requires the learner to search for additional information from other resources (internet) and within given material within the task | |
Assessing the relevance of information | Does the task contain additional information so that learners must distinguish relevant from irrelevant information? | 0 = all information is needed to complete the task, no selection necessary 1 = task contains irrelevant information; learner must differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information | Level 1: The textiles privately withdrawn by family Schiffelberger in the last quarter have not yet been recognized. Cost Price: 1,478 euros, Replacement Price: 1,350 euros Sale Price incl. 20% VAT: 2,778 euros | The learner needs to assess which price is relevant for correctly solving the task | |
Modeling Cycle | Translate | Does the task require translation of an economic phenomenon into accounting? (e.g. by correctly using specific terms, simplifying and structuring information, etc.) | 0 = no translation into an accounting model necessary 1 = translation necessary | Level 0: The food retailer Krug purchases organic wine from Italy. He is charged 144 euros freight for 480 bottles. How much does the freight cost him for 720 bottles? Level 1: Assist Rudolf in preparing the protocol by assigning the investment requests mentioned at the department manager meeting to one of the investment types Note: detailed conversation process is displayed | Task 1: No translation necessary, as this is not an accounting problem, but only a mathematical problem Task 2: A situation (department manager meeting) needs to be transferred to accounting (identifying investment types) by structuring the information, using specific terms, etc |
Operate | Does the task require performing calculations or applying formal accounting rules? | 0 = no calculations or posting documents necessary 1 = calculations or posting documents necessary | Level 1: For a current lawsuit, court costs are estimated at 5,800 euros. Correctly post the situation on the balance sheet day (Dec. 31st) | Learners are required to apply formal accounting rules, as they need to correctly document the situation (accrued liabilities for litigation) | |
Interpret | Does the task require interpreting the solution? | 0 = no interpretation of the solution necessary 1 = interpretation of the solution necessary | Level 1: Calculate for Juices & More for the month of July a) the gross profit b) the gross margin c) the return on sales. Assess whether the company achieves satisfactory results | Learners are required to interpret the solution, as they need to assess whether gross margin, gross profit, and return on sales are satisfactory | |
Interpret: liquidity aspects | Is the learner required to interpret the solution of the task or a transaction/situation in terms of its impact on liquidity? | 0 = no interpretation regarding the impact on liquidity necessary 1 = interpretation regarding the impact on liquidity necessary | Level 1: Assist Tina Fröhlich with the following questions regarding the evaluation of the results for the month of September: a) Calculate gross profit, gross margin, and return on sales for the month of September. b) Evaluate their respective trends over the three months of business. c) Review the development of liquidity. Compare the development of cash and short-term receivables on the one hand and short-term liabilities on the other. d) Consider the consequences of taking out the loan for liquidity in the coming months | The task requires learners to interpret a situation (e.g. taking out a loan) regarding its impact on liquidity | |
Interpret profitability aspects | Is the learner required to interpret the solution of the task or a transaction/situation in terms of its impact on profitability/profits? | 0 = no interpretation regarding the impact on profits necessary 1 = no interpretation regarding the impact on profits necessary | Level 1: Check whether the following business transactions increase, decrease, or have no effect on the company’s profit c) Receipt of December 23rd: payment of social insurance contributions for the month of December Note: only one transaction stated as an example | The task requires the learner to interpret a transaction regarding its impact on profitability aspects | |
Validate | Does the task require the solution to be evaluated? | 0 = no validation of the solution necessary 1 = validation necessary | Level 1: A manufacturer of household appliances produced three types of juicers in the past accounting period. Determine from the information listed below using break-even analysis a) the operating profit and the contribution margin per unit b) Critically comment on your calculation results | Learners have to critically evaluate their developed solution |